Ethical Challenges in Withdrawing Life Support free essay sample

Patients are compelled by powerful emotions (such as guilt) or by adherence to religious or secular traditions to behave in certain ways that may conflict with medical advice. 2 Honest discussions with patients and their families about the benefits and burdens of therapy and the medical uncertainty that exists are necessary to provide patients and families with the best opportunity to make informed decisions. We know that honest direct communication is most important for patients and families faced to make life determining decisions. These health care workers must communicate within the medical ethics of their profession. Medical ethics is based on a four prima facie moral principles and attention to these principles scope of application. The four prima facie principles are respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. â€Å"Prima facie,† a term introduced by the English philosopher W D Ross, means that the principle is binding unless it conflicts with another moral principle if it does we have to choose between them. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Challenges in Withdrawing Life Support or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Respect for autonomy is the moral obligation to respect the autonomy of others in so far as such respect is compatible with equal respect for the autonomy of all potentially affected. Respect for autonomy is also sometimes described, in Kantian terms, as treating others as ends in themselves and never merely as means one of Kants formulations of his â€Å"categorical imperative. †1 Beneficence and non-maleficence are contained within the traditional Hippocratic Oath in which it is the moral obligation of medicine to provide net medical benefit to patients with minimal harm. The fourth prima facie moral principle is justice. Justice is often regarded as being synonymous with fairness and can be summarized as the moral obligation to act on the basis of fair adjudication between competing claims. 1 We have now identified the four medical ethical principles that healthcare professionals must adhere to. I will now discuss the question of retaining or withdrawing life support for dying patients; providing food and fluids by tubes is a common form of life support for weak, injured, or unconscious patients. If the patient has the mental capacity to make decisions, then the patient can tell the physician what he/she wants. This will not alter the dying process and therefore is not considered suicide. It is important to remember that when we are entrusted with decisions about the care of the dying, the patient’s comfort and wishes must guide our decision making. 3 Missouri v. Cruzan was a case directly related to withdrawing life-sustaining treatment. This case in 1990 supported the â€Å"distinction between letting a patient die and making that patient die. 3 There was â€Å"clear and convincing† evidence of Nancy Cruzan’s intent was not to be sustained on a feeding tube and the tube was withdrawn. There comes a time when nature should take its course, the proper judgments of physicians and family should be respected and the patient should be allowed to die a natural and dignified death. Medical interventions can be withdrawn or withheld by the physician when they w ill not benefit the patient. Most ethical conflicts involve issues of autonomy and beneficence, and most of these conflicts involve the family. In principle, families do not have the right to reverse patients advance decisions when the patient loses consciousness. However, physicians may concede to the familys demands for aggressive therapy after the patient loses decision-making capacity. The reasons for this are varied: physicians can be fearful that angry families will sue if therapy is withheld; physicians may feel that they can make things easier for the family while producing only minimal burden to the patient; or physicians may not be firm in their own convictions. Nonetheless, the patients right to refuse therapy must be protected, recognizing that most patients are concerned about their families and do not wish to have family members undergo unnecessary anguish. Physicians should be sensitive to such family concerns, but in the end, it is the patients wishes that must prevail. 2 In closing, I would like to discuss the importance of advance planning and documenting your wishes on paper in a legal document. I am a hospice nurse and have witnessed both sides of this issue. If the patient has put their expectations in a Living Will the family will make the decision of withdrawing life supporting measures more easily than if they are deciding what their loved one would have wanted. I did not have advance directives until I was faced with the unexpected death of my mother, who was on a ventilator for aggressive treatment of pneumonia. Her heart failed and the decision was to resuscitate her or allow her to have a natural death. I had spoken with my mother since her diagnosis of lung cancer about her wishes but nothing was documented. I was only a daughter, without legal authority to make her medical decisions – that was left in the hands of her current husband. I looked at him and asked what he wanted as my mother’s heart grew weaker and leading to a point of ceasing and he said that they spoke about this and she wanted a natural death. I explained this to the intensive care nurse and her wishes through my step-father were granted. I knew at that time I needed my wishes in writing and the directives for my children if something would happen to me.

Free Essays on Ditching

How Ditching Took Over, and How I Took Over Ditching Whenever I am opening my locker and getting out my books, I see my S.A.R.B. contract that I signed not to long ago saying that I wouldn’t ditch anymore, and it reminds me of my problem at the beginning of the year. Earlier in the year I ditched at least one class a day, that’s pretty sad when a student only has three classes a day. In my essay I will describe to you a day at the beginning of the year, a day of school now, how I overcame my problem, and how I plan to act in the future. In the begging of the year I had four classes, because I had a tutorial. I would almost always ditch my tutorial class. Then, when the bell would ring I would go to my locker and get my books for my next class. At the time, I had plenty of friends that had cars, so it was easy to leave the school campus. So, if I didn’t get to leave the campus that period I would try again the next period. Sooner or later I succeeded. My problem got so out of hand that I would skip all day. Now, when I get to school I don’t have a tutorial because I dropped it at semester and that way I get to socialize with my friends in the mornings. Then, when I go to my locker to get my books for my next class I see my pick copy and the S.A.R.B. contract I signed about two weeks ago, and when I look at this pink sheet it motivates me to go to class. I was addicted to ditching and I couldn’t stop. It was sad to know that everyone knew that my group and I rarely ever went to class. I over came this problem by setting goals for myself. My goals started at ditching only once a day, then three times a day, and then down to twice a week. I was pretty proud of my self, but once or twice a week wasn’t good enough for my parents. My mother and my father helped me out a lot to quit ditching. They understood that I couldn’t quit all at once, so they agreed with my goals. So they gave me time and had faith in me. My p... Free Essays on Ditching Free Essays on Ditching How Ditching Took Over, and How I Took Over Ditching Whenever I am opening my locker and getting out my books, I see my S.A.R.B. contract that I signed not to long ago saying that I wouldn’t ditch anymore, and it reminds me of my problem at the beginning of the year. Earlier in the year I ditched at least one class a day, that’s pretty sad when a student only has three classes a day. In my essay I will describe to you a day at the beginning of the year, a day of school now, how I overcame my problem, and how I plan to act in the future. In the begging of the year I had four classes, because I had a tutorial. I would almost always ditch my tutorial class. Then, when the bell would ring I would go to my locker and get my books for my next class. At the time, I had plenty of friends that had cars, so it was easy to leave the school campus. So, if I didn’t get to leave the campus that period I would try again the next period. Sooner or later I succeeded. My problem got so out of hand that I would skip all day. Now, when I get to school I don’t have a tutorial because I dropped it at semester and that way I get to socialize with my friends in the mornings. Then, when I go to my locker to get my books for my next class I see my pick copy and the S.A.R.B. contract I signed about two weeks ago, and when I look at this pink sheet it motivates me to go to class. I was addicted to ditching and I couldn’t stop. It was sad to know that everyone knew that my group and I rarely ever went to class. I over came this problem by setting goals for myself. My goals started at ditching only once a day, then three times a day, and then down to twice a week. I was pretty proud of my self, but once or twice a week wasn’t good enough for my parents. My mother and my father helped me out a lot to quit ditching. They understood that I couldn’t quit all at once, so they agreed with my goals. So they gave me time and had faith in me. My p...

The Rationale of Equity Indexation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Rationale of Equity Indexation - Essay Example Capital market transactions are deemed efficient in the absence of intermediaries except for brokers who put buyers and sellers together and get a small commission, making the deal almost frictionless. With transaction costs negligible, the only real factor that determines the current price of a stock should be the net present value of its future cash flows in the form of dividends and, assuming the company lasts long enough, capital gains when the stock is sold at a future date. After all, a stock is nothing else but a claim to a company's future cash flows, and that its price indicates its net present value given the amount of cash it would generate over a future period of time (Graham, 1984). A company's cash flow is affected by several factors, such as business prospects, management quality, the economy's over-all performance, and the company's past performance. If these sets of information are known, computing for free cash flow looks relatively straightforward, and using a discount rate, the stock's present value can be easily calculated. If the market price is lower than the present value, the stock is bought. Otherwise, if one is holding the stock, it is sold. The low transaction costs of capital markets... "Beating the market" means that an investor cannot generate a rate of return from investing in the equities market that is above the rate of return of the whole market. The rate of return of the whole market is measured by looking at the rates of return of a basket of equities that is representative of the whole market of equities. This basket consists of stocks of companies of different sizes and from different industry sectors from amongst the list of all companies traded in the capital market, say in the London Stock Exchange. Using a formula that takes into account market capitalisation, historical share prices, and other considerations, the financial authorities determine which stocks to include. The stock prices of these stocks in the basket are mathematically added up to come up with the index that reflects the behaviour of the market as a whole. There are several indices formulated for the London Stock Exchange by an indexing company called FTSE International Ltd., an affilia te of the Financial Times Ltd., a U.K.-based firm. Amongst the indices monitored by FTSE are the FTSE All-shares (688 stocks), FTSE 100 (102 stocks), FTSE 250 (250 stocks), and the FTSE SmallCap (336 stocks) indices (FTSE ASWB, 2005). At the end of each trading day, FTSE adds the prices of the stocks in each of these indices and then publishes the results. Under the assumption that the market is efficient and that it is not possible to beat the markets, an investor can decide to adopt an equity index strategy, which consists of buying a basket of stocks in the same proportion as they are included in the basket of stocks used to calculate an index. Several fund management firms have made the job of investing easier by developing funds that

Charismatic and Transformational Leadership Research Paper - 1

Charismatic and Transformational Leadership - Research Paper Example This essay stresses that charismatic leadership can be defined as a leadership that is characterized by exceptional devotion, exemplary traits and heroism of the leader. The term â€Å"charismatic leadership† is conventionally used for such great leaders as prophets, though it can also be used for famous political leaders. One such political leader whose style of leadership is frequently identified as charismatic is Mahatma Gandhi. There are other leaders who may not be entirely popular for their positive traits, yet are known to have certain charismatic features that have had great influence on their followers. One such leader is Adolf Hitler. The charm of such leaders reflects in the fact that followers tend to comply with their instructions unarguably. There has been a lot of research upon the psychological attributes of leaders that make them charismatic in their leadership style. This paper makes a conclusion that the process of charismatic leadership is governed by three prime factors, namely the traits of the leader, the social situation that imparts need of a charismatic leader, and the bondage between the followers and the leader. There are six steps that explain the process of charismatic leadership from the start till end. These six steps are identification, activity arousal, commitment, disenchantment, depersonalization, and alienation. The identification step occurs as a result of the composition of the three factors that have been discussed before.

Describe how you would teach rounding with mixed decimals to the Essay

Describe how you would teach rounding with mixed decimals to the nearest tenth - Essay Example I will require briefly revisiting rounding up of whole numbers and placing values. Teaching how to round up decimals will be easy if the students are well conversant with the two concepts. Students should know what they are to do and where they are required to apply the round up by first knowing about the place value of tenths. First, rounding up is done right off the decimal point. After that, students should know that the number that is to be rounded is the one that is to the left of the decimal points. It is of importance to take the students through various place values that come after the decimal point such as tenth, hundredth, thousandth and so forth. Rounding decimal numbers take a similar route to that of whole numbers (Wingard, 2005). Round up 3.174 to the nearest tenth. The student is required to identify the number whose place value is tenths. The number is 1. The next step is to look at the number right after 1 which is in the place value of hundredths (Wingard, 2005). The number is 5. If the digit at the hundredth place value is below five, then the value of the tenth to not change. If the digit at the hundredth place value is five or above five, one is added to the number at the tenth place value. In our case, five is in the hundredth place value hence we add one to 1. Therefore, we will have 3.2 as our answer. I will further provide my students with worksheets that have the concept well illustrated for references. In addition, I will give two sums on the same topic that will be solved in five minutes, and I will go round checking to ensure that none of my students is left behind. When students are learning the concept of rounding mixed decimals to the nearest tenth, they often develop some errors. Such include rounding a whole number instead of the number after the decimal point (Wingard, 2005). In addition, some students

The Social Problem: Class Inequality

The Social Problem: Class Inequality Class inequality refers to the inequality of incomes between individuals, families, or between different groups, areas, or countries (Black, 2002). These inequalities occur as a result of differences in the ability to earn incomes as well as differences in property ownership. Some individuals usually have lower incomes than others, especially those who are economically inactive. This is usually as a result of age, poor health, or inability to find employment. Class inequality is a major social problem in the US and other parts of the world. For example, several studies have demonstrated that a childs future may be determined by the social status. One study found that although children may have similarities in their ability, differences in the circumstances to which they were born could make the difference on who will be successful in future, and who will not. By considering two children Bobby (the son of a lawyer) and Jimmy (son of a custodial assistant) who both do well in class, the study found that it makes it 27 times more likely that Bobby will get a high profile job, while Jimmy had one chance in eight of earning a median income. It is projected that currently, social inequality is greater in the US than in any other industrialized nation (Wolff, 1995). In 2007, a study conducted by the Congressional Office Bureau revealed that the wealth held by the richest 1 percent of the total American population totaled US$16.8 trillion, which makes up USD$2 trillion more than the combined wealth of the lower 90 percent of the American population. Another study conducted by the Center for American Progress (2007) showed that between 1979 and 2007, the average income of the bottom 50 percent of American households grew by only 6%, while the top 1% incomes increased by a massive 229 percent. This reveals that the gap between the rich and the poor in the US is widening, and may affect the future of children who come from economically disadvantaged families. This may lead to accelerated rates of crime, violence and drug abuse amongst poor communities. High advances in technology have led to the globalization phenomenon, whereby people in different parts of the world can interact faster and less expensively than before. Some activists consider globalization a social problem. For example, Stiglitz (2002) argues that globalization forced developing nations to liberalize their economies before they were ready, which pushed their citizens to poverty, a major social problem. Further, religious groups, especially Muslims and Christians, are opposed to globalization because it may erode some of their values. With globalization come cultural clashes, which are leading to erosion of cultures. These conflicts may not be easy to resolve because with globalization, there are difficulties in the issues related to justice, identity and equity. For example, previously, when disputes arose between people, they could be resolved by the government or the local council. The process of conflict resolution was faster. However, with globalization, socia l disputes go beyond local, regional and international boundaries. The process of conflict resolution is slower, and this makes people feel victimized, angry and powerless. As a result, there is a tendency for people to turn to violence when they feel they have no alternative. According to Stiglitz, globalization has its advantages, but also disadvantages. He states that it has a high potential to bring benefits to the world. So far, globalization has not brought comparable benefits in many parts of the world, and it is viewed by many as a disaster. However, since globalization is now a reality which affects everyone, it is essential that we strategize on how to benefit from it, and how to mitigate its negative impacts. In order to reap the benefits of globalization, the world will have to make rational decisions for people on both sides of the divide. A number of Sociological Theories attempt to explain why people commit crimes. These include the Strain Theory, the Social Learning Theory, the Control Theory, the Labeling Theory and the social Disorganization Theory. According to Agnew (1992), all crime theories attempt to explain crime as a component of the social environment. Social environment includes the family, school, peer group, workplace, community as well as the society. The structural strain theory, for example, states that social structures in a society could encourage its citizens to commit crimes. The structural strain theory was advanced by several sociologists. These were Merton (1938), Cohen (1955), Cloward and Ohlin (1960), Agnew (1992), as well as Messner and Rosenfeld (1994). According to the authors, strain can either be structural, which depicts the processes at the societal level which filter down and affect how an individual perceives his or her needs. That is, if particular social structures are inherently inadequate, the individuals perceptions may change to view them as opportunities. On the other hand, strain can be at the individual level, where it refers to the pain experienced by an individual when he seeks ways to satisfy his needs. At this level, if the goals of a society become significant to an individual, actually achieving them may become more important than the means adopted. The labeling theory, also known as social reaction theory, was developed by Howard Becker (1963), a sociologist. This theory states that deviance is not a quality of the act, since results from personality factors associated with committing deviance. Its main focus is on the linguistic tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities, mainly those perceived as deviant from the norms. According to this theory, self-identity and behavior of individuals can be influenced by the terms used to describe them. This theory is sometimes used to explain why people take drugs. An individual, for example, may escape to drugs due to low self esteem resulting from being constantly stereotyped. Blade Runner 1982 Ridley Scott | Analysis of Postmodernism Blade Runner 1982 Ridley Scott | Analysis of Postmodernism Research Proposal Commentary ‘Blade Runner 1982 Ridley Scott Postmodernism, after the modernist movement, is a term now almost as ‘ubiquitous, disliked and misunderstood as its parent, the modern (Jencks, C, p.14). It is a reaction to modernism, an aesthetic, to try and describe changes to conditions and institutions by the drawing of ‘attention to conventions (Oxford, 2009). Throughout this commentary I will explain how my chosen film of discussion ‘Blade Runner 1982, directed by Ridley Scott, is relevant to the postmodern era. I have chosen Blade Runner as the object for study as it is one of my favourite films; I feel it engages artistically and complexly with the issue of postmodernism. It is around the theme of identity I consider the film best represents not only its understanding of postmodernity but also its connection with postmodernism, ‘as the structure of feeling of late capitalism (McGuigan, 1992, p.221). The city of Blade Runner is relevant to the postmodern era, as it highlights the representation of post-industrial decay; it is not the ultra-modern but rather the postmodern city. The city represents an aesthetic of decay, revealing the process of ‘disintegration what could be seen as the ‘dark side of technology (Giuliana, B). Recycling, erosion and the explosion of boundaries help reinforce this postmodern aesthetic in Blade Runner. ‘Post-industrialism, ‘spatial relations, ‘urban decay, ‘pastiche consumption and ‘time consumption are five recognised postmodern issues I find to be represented within Blade Runner. Post-industrialism is clearly embodied in Blade Runners Tyrell Corporation (the main business company within the film). The film references changes in the dominant mode of production and the organisation of business, which could be called ‘advanced corporate capitalism (Davis, 1992). 1.Harvey 1989 states how ‘flexible accumulation creates the postmodern economic actuality of ‘overwhelming corporate power: Blade Runner is inundated with advanced technology, from hover cars, large electronic advertisements on blimps to videophones, the driving force behind the post-industrial society creating this power. In terms of spatial relations, postmodernity is characterised by class polarisation, with the wealthy and the poor becoming progressively more socially isolated from each other. This relationship makes itself evident in the ‘concrete spatial relations of postmodern cities, like Los Angeles (2.Harvey, 1989). This is made apparent with the architectural mise-en-scene in Blade Runner, particularly with the monolithic ivory tower of Tyrell, dominating the urban landscape of the poor, portraying a hierarchical class division. One of the most clearly presented conditions of postmodernity in Blade Runner is time compression, the outcome of increased consumption and exchange on the experience of time. Bringing with it an emphasis of unpredictability and ‘volatility (2.Harvey, 1989), the postmodern society is required to become accustomed to the demands of flexible accumulation. This is relevant with the replicant characters in Blade Runner, who are forced to live in ‘disconnected temporality (Bruno, G 1990). It is this lack of safe ‘temporal continuity represented within Blade Runner (Jameson, 1985) from neurotic preoccupation of its characters with individual pasts to ageing diseases that makes the film postmodern. Another issue represented within Blade Runner, which is considered another postmodern concern, is urban decay. Bruno states the speed and growth of development brings its own rapid ineluctable death and decay. Blade Runner portrays a post-industrial decaying future of Los Angeles, opposed to the familiar perception of ultra-modernity (shown within sci-fi films in the 1950s). It emphasises the effect of de-concentration with the result of immigration known as ‘geographical displacements and condensations (Bruno, 1990). As the upper class individuals vacate vast areas of the city, the poor and immigrants then can use these areas. Blade Runners ‘Off World colonies could be a symbolic extension in the trend to vacate a city in support of the commuter land of home-based work, as a blimp advertises â€Å"A chance to begin again!† As well as the issue of urban decay being a postmodern issue within Blade Runner, there is also pastiche consumption. This is where the postmodernist culture and postmodern socio-economics links start to be revealed as ‘difficult and uneven (Connor, 1989). In the film, the use of pastiche images and past/present styles is portrayed particularly in the mixture of architectural designs within the urban landscape, as Bruno states it is a ‘pastiche city. An example of this pastiche in Blade Runner is where Rachael played by actress Sean Young is dressed in 1940s utility clothing blending the space age of the 1960s. An architectural example is the style of the ‘retro bar where Deckard (Harrison Ford) finds Zhora (Joanna Cassidy). These points I have outlined reveal how Blade Runner is considered to be relevant to the postmodern era, using postmodern theoretical references. However, they are not the only reference points between Blade Runner and postmodernism. The Film also portrays elements of ‘hyperreality and ‘simulacra, which I will discuss within the essay. Bibliography: Jencks, C. (1996). â€Å"What is Postmodernism?†. Published by Academy Press; 4 edition (June 13, 1996) Oxford Dictionary. (2009). â€Å"Postmodernism†. Available at: http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/postmodernism?view=uk [Accessed 28/10/09] McGuigan, J. (1992). ‘Anomie of the people. In Cultural Populism. London: Routledge. Giuliana, B. (1987). ‘Ramble City: Postmodernism and Blade Runner. Available at: http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Bruno/bladerunner.html [Accessed 28/10/09] Davis, M. (1992). ‘City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles. London: Vintage. Harvey, D. (1989). ‘Flexible accumulation through urbanization: reflections on â€Å"Post-Modernism† in the American city. In The Urban Experience. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Harvey, D. (1989a). ‘Time-space compression and the postmodern condition. In The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Bruno, G. (1990). ‘Ramble city: postmodernism and Blade Runner. In A. Kuhn (ed.), Alien Zone: Cultural Theory and Contemporary Science Fiction Cinema. London: Verso. Jameson, F. (1985). ‘Postmodernism and consumer society. In H. Foster (ed.), Postmodern Culture. London: Pluto Press. Connor, S. (1989). ‘Postmodernities. In Postmodernist Culture: An Introduction to Theories of the Contemporary. Oxford: Blackwell.

Steroid Usage Essays -- Sports Athletes Steroids Essays

Steroid Usage Why do so many people use steroids when there are so many health risks and side effects? Do people take steroids because they are not aware of all the risks? Not likely, steroids have been around since the 1930’s when Nazi scientists tried to invent drugs that would make German armies more powerful (Banks, Substance Abuse in Sport: The Realities, pg. 13-21). Though steroids were considered harmful and made illegal in 1991 (Berlow, Sports Ethics). Some side affects of steroids are baldness, high blood pressure, lowered sex drive, acne, nosebleeds, liver disease, kidney disease, and many more (Williams, Drugs and Athletic Performance, pg. 88-90). It may sound ridiculous and idiotic, to those who use steroids, with all the risks involved, but the temptation and pressures in using them are sometimes unbearable. In today’s society there are many pressures to be the best athlete and to look a certain way. Nobody wants to take second place, or look scrawny and wimpy. People w ant to be the winner and want others to turn their heads to look at them when they walk into a room. The fastest and easiest way to do that is to take steroids. People take steroids to be bigger and better at sports and also improve physical appearance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In today’s athletics, athletes are getting bigger, stronger, and faster. Whether an athlete plays high school or professional sports, it is getting harder for athletes to compete at a high level with all the competition. When an athlete is not good enough to make the team or is on a team and does not play much the athlete will do just about anything to improve themselves. Many athletes spend numerous hours practicing and lifting weights trying to get better at their sport, and still they lack what it takes to make the team or be the best. Steroids are the solution to their problems and a way to make their dreams come true. If you were offered the opportunity to lose body fat, get stronger, add more muscle within six weeks and have more motivation to work out more consistently then you do now, would not you try it? Sure it is illegal and it is unfair for all the other athletes who do it the hard way, but most do not care. Many young men are taking steroids a t a young age. Reports from the Arizona Criminal Justice Commission issued a report that steroid use increased 2.6 percent from 1997 to 1999. Also, a report from th... ...unless they take steroids. Should the athlete take steroids and be a starter, or do not take steroids and never play?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In today’s athletics, nobody wants to watch a losing team. Whether the person plays on a team, or an individual sport. People want to see their team or favorite athlete succeed. Everyone is getting bigger and better at the sports they play. Some of the pressure that athletes receive is from the fans.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are many pressures in society today. Some people take steroids so they will make the team or do better in the sport they play, and others just want to look good. The rest are pressured into taking steroids from there coaches, media, and even fans. Are taking steroids worth all of the risks involved? Well, for the people who take steroids they are worth all the risks. In athletics there is no second place; either you are a winner or you are a loser, and nobody likes to be a loser. There are many reasons people use steroids. Although steroids are not safe, people continue to use them. It is not right for people to use steroids, but as long as there are pressures to win, look good, and to get bigger and stronger there will be people using steroids.

Psychology As A Science

Psychology being categorised under the name science, can often lead to disputes within the field of sciences. Psychology is the observation of behaviour and thought process of the human mind, within itself it is a vital source of knowledge, such as how biology, chemistry and physics provides a source of knowledge that is vital to humans and the environment. Science can be seen as the study of natural behaviours and physical aspects of the world, this definition within itself accompanies itself with the idea that psychology is a science, as behaviours are studied within the field of psychology.Eysenck and Keane (2000) believed that to make something a science it must have the following features, controlled observation, in which a specific manipulation is observed to see the effects. Secondly objectivity, as when data has been collected objectively it reduces the possibility of bias, thirdly testing theoretical predictions, because if a theory is not tested there is no evidence to prov ide if it is right or wrong.Fourthly is falsifiability, which means the scientific theory has the potential to be proved wrong by evidence, fifthly is the unifying theory which is every subject within the sciences has a unifying approach all theories are based off. Finally there is the fact of is any research conducted replicable, as it is hard to rely on studies that could provide inconsistent findings. Although providing clear guidelines on what makes a science, there are still some aspects which make the divide not as clear as believed.For example psychology uses the scientific method in some of the studies conducted, which is used throughout science for all research, so this aspect can be seen to make psychology a science. Too many the field of psychology is classed as a science; the science of the mind, as it looks at the most complex thing on Earth, the human mind, all theories on behaviours and thoughts stem from psychology (BBC, 2013).In many areas psychology and the three s ciences (physics, biology and chemistry) have similarities, for example, the sciences can be seen as reductionist as they try to take a complex behaviour or physical problem and break it down in to a simpler form. Many theories within psychology on similar problems can also be seen as reductionist as it aims to take complex behaviours and thoughts and break it down in to easier components to study.An example of this can be shown by Freud (1909), Freud believes behaviour stems from the unconscious mind, making it a reductionist as it does not take biology or other factors in to account. Reductionism can be seen to be an advantage when it comes to conducting a study as it means testable predictions can be created, and then can be carried out in a controlled experiment. Although by making a reductionist theory can also cause disadvantages such as falsifiability. Popper (1963) believed falsifiability was key to science, as science does not seek to prove its own theory right, but tries t o confirm it as wrong.This means that if a theory is un-falsifiable then it is not scientific, psychology in many sectors is falsifiable through problems such as reductionism, but there are also theories that are un-falsifiable as they are untestable such as many of Freuds (1909) theories display, for example the Oedipus complex can neither be proven nor disproven. As well as having issues with falsifiability psychology also lacks the objectivity needed for science to make it truly scientific, as without objectivity the research is prone to becoming bias.Even in experiments such as Skinners (1956) rat experiment can be shown to be subjective, because although the rat is pressing the lever and the lever presses are recorded automatically, it is still down to the opinion of the researcher on when he believes the rat has learnt by pressing the lever they get a treat. This can be counteracted on the bases that psychology has the unique position of studying the human mind which in itself is difficult to operationalize, as not all parts of the behaviour and thoughts can be measured scientifically, which unlike atomic mass or miles per hour in science can be.Science within itself can also come across problematic issues over control and objectivity. An example of this is the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle â€Å"The more precisely the position is determined, the less precisely the momentum is known in this instant, and vice versa. † (Heisenberg, 1972) which means if something is precisely measured, and a hypothesis is believed to be true, it can often distant the researcher from the actual result. An issue with measuring investigations using the scientific method in general is it can restrict and affect answers within itself.An example is it can be argued that laboratory experiments are very artificial, so do not provide a clear picture of what would happen in real life terms. As well as sharing similarities with science on the basis they both have issues with control and objectivity, they both also share the same goals. They have three aims, the prediction, understanding and control over a study. Scientists and psychologists both put a theory forward, these theories in both cases lead to a creation of a hypotheses, this is the prediction.The next step is the understanding which is when you receive results from a prediction it should give the researcher and anyone reading the report a greater understanding of that subject. Control is the final step, the knowledge gained from the proven hypothesis provides knowledge which can be used to alter certain factors in the world. The three aims of science are according to Allport (1947), psychology follows these same three aims throughout studies, reporting and publishing work just as biology, chemistry and physics do.Throughout psychology the scientific method is used, but not in all areas although science has default problems itself with the scientific method. So it cannot always be said subjec ts within science always stick within the scientific boundaries themselves. Another point within psychology is psychology is a ‘new’ science, biology, chemistry and physics have been in service for a good period longer, so it may be in time more likely to be classed as a science.Nevertheless Miller (1983) would argue psychology is just a pseudoscience, an approach that claims to be scientific but does not have the key principles of science, he claims this can be dangerous as psychology is claiming to be a science, it provides the false ideal that their findings is ‘fact’. Although in comparison it could be argued that there is no ultimate knowledge of human’s behaviours and thoughts, so there must be a science to take over this role of discovering behaviours and thoughts.Science may study the physical aspects of the brain e. g. hormones that can be proven through empirical evidence, but it does not study the unknown areas such as behaviours, this is where psychology can provide answers. For example Piaget’s (1966) stages of development theory, that people develop starting at the pre-concrete stage and move throughout these stages until they reach the formal stage, science does not provide an answer for how humans develop in this sense.In conclusion psychology may seem like a vague  subject with no clear goals or guidelines, but it does have aims, its aim is to study the mind, the way people behave and think. Science still has unexplainable occurrences, that have no empirical evidence so in turn cannot be falsified, which in itself should make it not scientific. Psychology can provide answers for what science cannot explain, such as how memories are stored, psychology provides a theory for this whereas science does not. In conclusion psychology can be seen as a science to explain human behaviour that other sciences cannot.

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